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2008年12月11日星期四

Mezzanine

Overview
The floor often projects itself from the walls and does not completely close the view of the ceiling from ground floor. In short, the Mezzanine Floor and the ground floor share the same ceiling. There is a belief that a mezzanine floor is always located between the ground floor and the first floor but it is not unusual to have mezzanine floors in the upper floors of a building.
In Palladian architecture the mezzanine is a low upper floor, usually for servants and/or storage.
In stadiums, the "mezzanine" level is a term often used for premium or "club level" seating, typically just a few rows deep and hanging from the upper tier, affording an unobstructed view of the playing field.

Industrial Mezzanines
In industrial applications, mezzanine floor systems are semi-permanent floor systems typically installed within buildings, built between two permanent original stories. These structures are usually free standing and in most cases can be dismantled and relocated. Commercially sold mezzanine structures are generally constructed of three main materials; steel, aluminum, and fiberglass. The decking or flooring of a mezzanine will vary by application but is generally composed of b-deck underlayment and wood product finished floor or a heavy duty steel, aluminum or fiberglass grating.
The mezzanine is often used in shops and similar spaces for storage of tools or materials. The high roof of the shop is ideal for a mezzanine, and offices can be put either below or above it. Mezzanines are frequently used in industrial operations such as warehousing, distribution or manufacturing. These facilities have high ceilings, allowing unused space to be utilized within the vertical cube. Industrial mezzanine structures are typically either structural, roll formed, rack-supported, or shelf-supported, allowing high density storage within the mezzanine structure.

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Unit load

Function
Most consumer and industrial products move through the supply chain in unitized or unit load form for at least part of their distribution cycle. Unit loads make handling, storage, and distribution more efficient. They help reduce handling costs and damage by reducing individual handling.
A typical unit load might consist of corrugated fiberboard boxes stacked on a pallet and stabilized with stretch wrap, straps or other materials. About 2 billion unit loads are in daily use in the United States (Ward 1993).

Unit Load Design
There are three kinds of unit load design: Component based, systems based, and standards compliant. These have different applications.

Component Based Design
Component based design is the outmoded ad-hoc method of unit load design. Components are sometimes over specified to get assured performance, or tested to get inexpensive economic performance.
Unit load storage and distribution systems consist of several interacting parts:
Packaging and labeling (with product),
Pallet, and
Handling/Storage Equipment
The distribution environment (shock, vibration, humidity, temperature, etc)
Considerable knowledge exists regarding the design of each of these components: their interactions have more recently been studied. When packaging, pallet, and handling systems are designed separately at different locations by different teams, the result might be inefficient unit load systems.
The consequences of independent component based design in the supply chain can include:
Unsafe WorkplacesProduct DamageHigh Packaging CostsReduced Handling EfficiencyWasted Natural ResourcesReduction of Environmental Quality

Systems Based Design
Systems Based Design is a proven process of unit load component cost optimization based on an understanding of how the pallet, packaging and material handling equipment interact during product distribution and storage to design the unit load component parts.
Very often a few inexpensive additions to the packaging can stabilize or stiffen a critical part and give good unit-load performance at a low cost.
Factors considered in unit load systems based design include:
Distribution Vibration and ResonanceLoad Bridging and DeformationUnit Load DeflectionsInterfacial friction and load stabilityCompression stress and product protectionVertical and horizontal stabilization

Standards-Compliant Design
Standards permit a unit load to be designed and tested to meet a written specification or test method. A unit load can be verified to comply with a standard and validated to determine that the unit load is indeed effective.
Unit loads move by an unpredictable mix of many types of vehicles and storage areas, the exact set is difficult to predict. Therefore, unit loads must be designed to travel by any such vehicles, and be stored in a wide variety of places. There are therefore many similarities in the requirements for long term storage and long distance transportation of unit loads.
Standards provide institutional memory of the many conditions in real logistic trains, and collect the best practices for design and testing unit loads. Standards also describe load requirements, so that logistic providers can plan to meet them.
Material based standards describe proven designs for particular circumstances. These are often used to describe unit load components such as pallets, strapping, seals, caps, retaining rings and battens.
Performance testing standards describe needs and allow flexibility in the choice of matierials. These are applied to particular unit load designs.
ASTM D4169 has standard test protocols for unit loads. These vary based on the value of the load, the expected hazards, and the distribution environment. This is a performance based standard.
Another standard for unit loads is MIL-STD-1660, a standard for ammunition unit loads. DOD unit loads generally use 40x48" pallets, which pack efficiently into ISO containers. They weigh less than 4000lbs (1800kg) to limit the stresses on handling equipment. They are weatherproof, and stack 16' (4.9m) high. They often use steel pallets, steel straps with notched seals, outdoor plywood, and plastic film. Interestingly, MIL-STD-1660 mandates that loads must never be less than the width of a pallet, while permitting some overhang. The markings are logmars bar codes and standard inventory numbers. The standard describes major parts of the logistic path, including storage, ship, air, truck, forklift and sling (i.e. ship-to-ship and parachute). There are auxiliary standards for ship-to-ship transfers, and amphibious transfers. There are tests for stacking, transport, sling, forklift and pallet jack, impact, drop tests, tip, water-retention (i.e. weather), and safe disassembly.
MIL-STD-1660 at first looks like ridiculous overdesign to commercial unit-load designers. However, similar marking standards, safety, stability, volumetric efficiency, weight limits and impact resistance are routinely needed in commercial logistics. Sling handling is routine for small ports and noncontainer transports. Weatherproofness could be optional. It's sometimes valuable, and the baggies are cheap. High, standardized stacking could be optional as well. It's expensive, but sometimes valuable for rackless and military customers.

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Pallet jack

A pallet jack, also known as a pallet truck or pump truck, is a tool used to lift and move pallets.
The front wheels are mounted inside the end of the forks, and as the hydraulic jack is raised, the forks are separated vertically from the front wheels, forcing the load upward until it clears the floor. The pallet is only lifted enough to clear the floor for subsequent travel.

Types

Manual pallet jack
A manual pallet jack is a hand-powered jack.

Powered pallet jack
Powered pallet jacks are motorized to allow lifting and moving of heavier and stacked pallets. These generally contain a platform for the user to stand while hauling pallets around a warehouse or loading/unloading trucks. The powered pallet jack is generally moved by a throttle on the handle to move forward or in reverse and steered by swinging the handle in the intended direction. Some contain a type of dead man's switch rather than a brake to stop the machine should the user need to stop quickly or leave the machine while it is in use.

Operational limitations
Reversible pallets cannot be used.
Double-faced nonreversible pallets cannot have deckboards where the front wheels extend to the floor.
Enables only two-way entry into a four-way notched-stringer pallet, because the forks cannot be inserted into the notches

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Packaging and labeling

The purposes of packaging and package labels
Packaging and package labeling have several objectives:
Physical protection - The objects enclosed in the package may require protection from, among other things, shock, vibration, compression, temperature, etc.
Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required. Permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or Oxygen absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, sterile and safe for the intended shelf life is a primary function.
Containment or agglomeration - Small objects are typically grouped together in one package for reasons of efficiency. For example, a single box of 1000 pencils requires less physical handling than 1000 single pencils. Liquids, powders, and granular materials need containment.
Information transmission - Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport, recycle, or dispose of the package or product. With pharmaceuticals, food, medical, and chemical products, some types of information are required by governments.
Marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage potential buyers to purchase the product. Package design has been an important and constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades. Marketing communications and graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and (in many cases) the point of sale display.
Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of shipment. Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can have tamper-evident features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to help reduce the risks of package pilferage: Some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage and some have pilfer indicating seals. Packages may include authentication seals to help indicate that the package and contents are not counterfeit. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye-packs, RFID tags, or electronic article surveillance tags, that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this way is a means of loss prevention.
Convenience - Packages can have features which add convenience in distribution, handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, and reuse.
Portion control - Single serving or single dosage packaging has a precise amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt) can be divided into packages that are a more suitable size for individual households. It is also aids the control of inventory: selling sealed one-liter-bottles of milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to fill themselves.

Packaging types

Various household packaging types for foods
Packaging may be looked at as several different types. For example a transport package or distribution package is the package form used to ship, store, and handle the product or inner packages. Some identify a consumer package as one which is directed toward a consumer or household.
Packaging may discussed in relation to the type of product being packaged: medical device packaging, bulk chemical packaging, over-the-counter drug packaging, retail food packaging, military materiel packaging, pharmaceutical packaging, etc.

Pull open aluminum can
It is sometimes convenient to categorize packages by layer or function: "primary", "secondary", etc.
Primary packaging is the material that first envelops the product and holds it. This usually is the smallest unit of distribution or use and is the package which is in direct contact with the contents.
Secondary packaging is outside the primary packaging – perhaps used to group primary packages together.
Tertiary packaging is used for bulk handling, warehouse storage and transport shipping. The most common form is a palletized unit load that packs tightly into containers.
These broad categories can be somewhat arbitrary. For example, depending on the use, a shrink wrap can be primary packaging when applied directly to the product, secondary packaging when combining smaller packages, and tertiary packaging on some distribution packs.

Symbols used on packages and labels
Many types of symbols for package labeling are nationally and internationally standardized. For consumer packaging, symbols exist for product certifications, trademarks, proof of purchase, etc. Some requirements and symbols exist to communicate aspects of consumer use and safety. Recycling directions, Resin identification code (below), and package environmental claims have special codes and symbols.

Bar codes (below), Universal Product Codes, and RFID labels are common to allow automated information management.

"Wikipedia" encoded in Code 128
Shipments of hazardous materials or dangerous goods have special information and symbols (labels, plackards, etc) as required by UN, country, and specific carrier requirements.

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Forklift truck

History
The middle 19th century through the early 20th century saw the developments that led to today's modern forklifts. The Pennsylvania Railroad in 1906 introduced battery powered platform trucks for moving luggage at their Altoona, Pennsylvania train station. World War I saw the development of different types of material handling equipment in the United Kingdom by Ransomes, Sims and Jeffries of Ipswich. This was in part due to the labor shortages caused by the war. In 1917 Clark in the United States began developing and using powered tractor and powered lift tractors in their factories. In 1919 the Towmotor Company and Yale & Towne Manufacturing in 1920 entered the lift truck market in the United States.
Continuing development and expanded use of the forklift continued through the 1920s and 1930s. World War II, like World War I before, spurred the use of forklift trucks in the war effort. Following the war, more efficient methods for storing products in warehouses were being implemented. Warehouses needed more maneuverable forklift trucks that could reach greater heights. New forklift models were made that filled this need.

Design types

The following is a list of the more common lift truck types. It is arranged from the smallest type of lift to largest:
Hand pallet truck
Walkie low lift truck (powered pallet truck, usually electrically powered)
Rider low lift truck
Towing tractor
Walkie stacker
Rider stacker
Reach truck (small forklift, designed for small aisles, usually electrically powered)
Electric counterbalanced truck
IC counterbalanced truck
Sideloader
Telescopic handler
Slip Sheet machine
Walkie Order Picking truck
Rider Order Picking truck (commonly called an "Order Picker"; like a small forklift, except the operator rides up to the load and transfers it article by article)
Articulated Very Narrow Aisle Counterbalanced trucks (commonly called "Flexi Truck")
Guided Very Narrow Aisle truck - 'Man Down' (a type of reach truck designed for aisles less than five feet wide) and 'Man Riser' Combination pickcle Picker/ Stacker truck
Truck Mounted Forklift / Sod Loader

Specialty trucks
At the other end of the spectrum from the counterbalanced forklift trucks are more 'high end' specialty trucks:
Articulated Counterbalance Trucks
These are, unlike most other lift trucks, front wheel steer, and are a hybrid VNA (Very Narrow Aisle) truck designed to be both able to offload trailers and place the load in narrow aisle racking. Increasingly these trucks are able to compete in terms of pallet storage density, lift heights and pallet throughput with Guided Very Narrow Aisle trucks.
Guided Very Narrow Aisle Trucks
These are rail or wide guided and available with lift heights up to 40' non top-tied and 98' top-tied. Two forms are available; 'man-down' and 'man-riser' where the operator elevates with the load for increased visibility or for multilevel 'break bulk' order picking. This type of truck, unlike Articulated Narrow Aisle Trucks, requires a high standard of floor flatness.
U.S. Military 10K-AT "Adverse Terrain"

Counterbalanced forklift components

Image of an electric forklift with component descriptions
A typical counterbalanced forklift contains the following components
The Truck Frame - is the base of the machine to which the mast, axles, wheels, counterweight, overhead guard and power source are attached. The frame may have fuel and hydraulic fluid tanks constructed as part of the frame assembly.
The Counterweight - is a heavy cast iron mass attached to the rear of the forklift truck frame. The purpose of the counterweight is to counterbalance the load being lifted. In an electric forklift the large lead-acid battery itself may serve as part of the counterweight.
The Cab - is the area that contains a seat for the operator along with the control pedals, steering wheel, levers, switches and a dashboard containing operator readouts. The cab area may be open air or enclosed, but it is covered by the cage-like overhead guard assembly.
The Overhead Guard - is a metal roof supported by posts at each corner of the cab that helps protect the operator from any falling objects. On some forklifts, the overhead guard is part of the frame assembly
The Power Source - may consist of an internal combustion engine that can be powered by LP gas, CNG gas, gasoline or diesel fuel. Electric forklifts are powered by either a battery or fuel cells that provide power to electric motors. The motors may be either DC or AC types.
Tilt Cylinders - are hydraulic cylinders that are mounted to the truck frame and the mast. The tilt cylinders pivot the mast to assist in engaging a load.
The Mast - is the vertical assembly that does the work of raising and lowering the load. It is made up of interlocking rails that also provide lateral stability. The interlocking rails may either have rollers or bushings as guides. The mast is either hydraulically operated by one or more hydraulic cylinders or it may be chain operated with a hydraulic motor providing motive power. It may be mounted to the front axle or the frame of the forklift.
The Carriage - is the component to which the forks or other attachments mount. It is mounted into and moves up and down the mast rails by means of chains or by being directly attached to the hydraulic cylinder. Like the mast, the carriage may have either rollers or bushings to guide it in the interlocking mast rails.
The Load Back Rest - is a rack-like extension that is either bolted or welded to the carriage in order to prevent the load from shifting backward when the carriage is lifted to full height.
Attachments - may consist of forks or tines that are the L-shaped members that engage the load. A variety of other types of material handling attachments are available. These include sideshifters, slipsheet attachments, carton clamps, multipurpose clamps, rotators, fork positioners, carpet poles, pole handlers, container handlers, roll clamps and many others.

Attachments
Below is a list of common forklift attachments:
Sideshifter - is a hydraulic attachment that allows the operator to move the tines (forks) and backrest laterally. This allows easier placement of a load without having to reposition the truck
Rotator - To aid the handling of skids that may have become excessively tilted and other specialty material handling needs some forklifts are fitted with an attachment that allows the tines to be rotated. This type of attachment may also be used for dumping containers for quick unloading.
Fork Positioner - is a hydraulic attachment that moves the tines (forks) together or apart. This removes the need for the operator to get out of the cab to manually adjust the tines for different sized loads.
Roll and Barrel Clamp Attachment - A mechanical or hydraulic attachment that is used for handling barrels, kegs, or paper rolls. This type of attachment also usually have a rotate function so that a vertically stored paper roll can be inserted into the horizontal intake of a printing press.
Pole Attachments - In some locations, such as carpet warehouses, a long metal pole is used instead of forks to lift carpet rolls. Similar devices, though much larger, are used to pick up metal coils.
Carton and Multipurpose Clamp Attachments - are hydraulic attachments that allow the operator to open and close around a load, squeezing it to pick it up. Products like cartons, boxes and bales can be moved with this type attachment. With these attachments in use, the forklift truck is sometimes referred to as a clamp truck.
Slip Sheet Attachment (Push - Pull) - is a hydraulic attachment that reaches forward, clamps onto a slipsheet and draws the slipsheet onto wide and thin metal forks for transport. The attachment will push the slip sheet and load off the forks for placement.
Drum Handler Attachment - is a mechanical attachment that slides onto the tines (forks). It usually has a spring loaded jaw that grips the top lip edge of a drum for transport. Another type grabs around the drum in a manner similar to the roll or barrel attachments.
Man Basket - a lift platform that slides onto the tines (forks); meant for hoisting workers. The man basket has railings and brackets for attaching safety harnesses.
Telescopic Forks - are hydraulic attachments that allow the operator to operate in warehouse design for "double-deep stacking", which means that two pallet shelves are placed behind each other without any aisle between them.

Forklift control and capabilities

a typical load capacity chart
‎
Forklift trucks are available in many variations and load capacities. In a typical warehouse setting most forklifts used have load capacities between one to five tons. Larger machines, up to 50 tons lift capacity are used for lifting heavier loads, including loaded shipping containers. [7]
In addition to a control to raise and lower the forks (also known as blades or tines), the operator can tilt the mast to compensate for a load's tendency to angle the blades toward the ground and risk slipping off the forks. Tilt also provides a limited ability to operate on non-level ground. Skilled forklift operators annually compete in obstacle and timed challenges at regional forklift rodeos.

General operations

A forklift transporting a pallet of potted plants in Durham, North Carolina.
Forklifts are rated for loads at a specified maximum weight and a specified forward centre of gravity. This information is located on a nameplate provided by the manufacturer, and loads must not exceed these specifications(In Canada it is 24" Load Center). In many jurisdictions it is illegal to remove or tamper with the nameplate without the permission of the forklift manufacturer.
An important aspect of forklift operation is that many have rear-wheel steering. While this increases maneuverability in tight cornering situations, it differs from a driver’s traditional experience with other wheeled vehicles. While steering, as there is no caster action, it is unnecessary to apply steering force to maintain a constant rate of turn.
Another critical characteristic of the forklift is its instability. The forklift and load must be considered a unit with a continually varying centre of gravity with every movement of the load. A forklift must never negotiate a turn at speed with a raised load, where centrifugal and gravitational forces may combine to cause a disastrous tip-over accident. The forklift are designed with a load limit for the forks which is decreased with fork elevation and undercutting of the load (i.e. load does not butt against the fork "L"). A loading plate for loading reference is usually located on the forklift. A forklift should not be used as a personnel lift without the fitting of specific safety equipment, such as a "cherry picker" or "cage".

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Pallet

Overview
Containerization for transport has spurred the use of pallets because the containers have the clean, level surfaces needed for easy pallet movement. Most pallets can easily carry a load of 1,000 kg (about 2,000 lb). Today, over half a billion pallets are manufactured each year and about two billion pallets are in use across the United States alone.
Pallets make it easy to move heavy stacks. Loads with pallets under them can be hauled by forklift trucks of different sizes, or even by hand-pumped and hand-drawn pallet jacks. Movement is easy on a wide, strong, flat floor: concrete is excellent. A forklift truck can cost the same as a luxury automobile, but a good reconditioned hand-drawn pallet jack costs only a few hundred dollars. The greatest investment is thus in the construction of commercial or industrial buildings where the use of pallets could be economical. Passage through doors and buildings must be possible. To help this issue, some later pallet standards (the europallet and the U.S. Military 35x45.5") are designed to pass through standard doorways.
Organizations using standard pallets for loading and unloading can have much lower costs for handling and storage, with faster material movement than businesses that do not. The exceptions are establishments that move small items such as jewelry or large items such as cars. But even they can be improved. For instance, the distributors of costume jewelry normally use pallets in their warehouses and car manufacturers use pallets to move components and spare parts.
The lack of a single international standard for pallets causes substantial continuing expense in international trade. A single standard is difficult because of the wide variety of needs a standard pallet would have to satisfy: passing doorways, fitting in standard containers, and bringing low labor costs. For example, organizations already handling large pallets often see no reason to pay the higher handling cost of using smaller pallets that can fit through doors.

History

Development of commercial transport packaging

Pallets stacked for loading onto barges in North London
Skids and pallets were slowly introduced throughout the early 20th century; wooden boxes, crates, barrels and kegs were much more commonly used to unitize, protect, store and transport goods. The predecessor of the modern wooden pallet was a simple skid that consisted only of stringers fastened to a top deck. It first appeared in American factories in conjunction with the low lift truck. A crude low lift hand truck was invented in 1887 and a more durable, all-steel low lift truck design was introduced in 1909.
The high lift fork truck first appeared in 1915. With further modification in 1919, the truck could lift loads several feet high while other improvements included cantilever design and forks. The emergence of forks as well during the same period enabled lift trucks to handle a much greater range of materials.
Another development was the new capability of the mast of the fork lift to tilt both forward and back, independent of the lifting mechanism. These developments, along with the emergence of the double-faced pallet during the same time period, allowed for tiering of unit loads. As early as 1926, the essence of the modern lift truck had been developed. Now, pallets no longer were simply a means of moving materials within the plant. High lift trucks made possible vertical stacking of unit loads and a resulting dramatic improvement of warehouse and plant storage efficiencies.

Development of the pallet
The pallet was developed in stages. Spacers were used between loads to allow fork entry, progressing to the placement of boards atop stringers to make skids. Eventually boards were fastened to the bottom to create the pallet. The addition of bottom boards on the skid, which appeared by 1925, resulted in the modern form of the pallet. With the bottom deck, several problems common to the single faced skid were addressed. For example, the bottom boards provided better weight distribution and reduced product damage; they also provided better stacking strength and rigidity. Lift truck manufacturers promoted the idea of using more vertical area of a plant for stock storage.
In size, skids started narrow in order to pass through ordinary doors. As facilities were rebuilt, many organizations optimized their buildings for larger pallets in order to reduce labor costs.
The earliest referenced U.S. patent on a skid is Hallowell's 1924 "Lift Truck Platform." In 1939, Carl Clark patented a recognizably modern pallet, although with steel stringers.In World War II, palleted material handling was rapidly perfected in order to transfer Allied war materials. The patent activity picked up again after the war, as inventors claimed items they improvised for the war effort. The first four direction pallet was claimed in 1945 by Robert Braun.At the end of 1948, Sullivan Stemple claimed the basic idea of a pallet designed to be used with a fork lift; the pallet was to be stamped from steel During World War II, to reduce the resupply time of warships, the first modern disposable four-way block pallet was developed, and patented in early 1949 by Norman Cahners, a U.S. Navy Supply Officer in the ordnance depot at Hingham, Massachusetts. The first completely modern 2-direction stringer pallet was described in 1949 by Darling Graeme.

Impact of pallet on rail transport
Pallets and forklifts also provided much quicker turnaround of rail cars and ships. In 1931, three days were required to unload a boxcar containing 13,000 cases of unpalletized canned goods. When the same amount of goods were loaded into the railway trucks on pallets or skids, the identical task took only four hours. With the entry of the U.S. into World War II, the urgency for material handling reform changed almost overnight. Palletization was regarded as an enormous opportunity to help the U.S. armed forces do more with less. Palletized loads could handle more goods with fewer people, freeing up men for military duty; it also could increase warehouse storage capacity and throughput, reducing the need for additional warehouse capacity. Pallets were used somewhat in the European theater, but they were put to work extensively in the Pacific.

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Material handling equipment

Storage and Handling Equipment
Storage and handling equipment is a category within the material handling industry. The equipment that falls under this description is usually non-automated storage equipment. Products such as Pallet rack, shelving, carts, etc. belong to storage and handling. Many of these products are often referred to as "catalog" items because they generally have globally accepted standards and are often sold as stock materials out of Material handling catalogs.

Engineered Systems
Engineered systems are typically custom engineered material handling systems. Conveyors, AS/RS, AGV and most other automated material handling systems fall into this category. Engineered systems are often a combination of products integrated to one system. Many distribution centers will optimize storage and picking by utilizing engineered systems such as pick modules and sortation systems.

Industrial Trucks
Industrial trucks usually refer to operator driven motorized warehouse vehicles. Industrial trucks assist the material handling system with versatility; they can go where engineered systems cannot. Forklift trucks are the most common example of industrial trucks but certainly aren't the extent of the category. Tow tractors and stock chasers are additional examples of industrial trucks.

Bulk Material Handling
Bulk material handling equipment is used to move and store bulk materials such as ore, liquids, and cereals. This equipment is often seen on farms, mines, shipyards and refineries. This category is also explained in Bulk material handling.

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